Today`s Culture of Poverty

                      This post is a summary of three articles. The first was published at

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_poverty.   The second was published at 

http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/03/opinion/the-poverty-of-an-idea.  The third                http://www.newsweek.com/todays-culture-poverty-84449, with the title above.

               The culture of poverty is a social theory that expands on the cycle of poverty. It attracted academic and policy attention in the 1960s, survived harsh academic criticism, and made a comeback at the beginning of the 21st century. It offers one way to explain why poverty exists despite anti-poverty programs. Critics of this subculture arguments insist that explanations of poverty must analyze how structural factors interact with individual characteristics. Early proponents of this theory argued that the poor are not simply lacking resources, but also acquire a poverty-perpetuating value system. The concept created a backlash, pushing scholars to look to structures rather than the poor. Since the late 1990s, this culture has witnessed a resurgence in the social science, although most scholars now reject the notion of a monolithic and unchanging culture of poverty. The anthropologist Oscar Lewis gave characteristics that indicated the presence of this subculture, which he argued was not shared among all of the lower class. He wrote, " People with a culture of poverty only know their own conditions. Usually, they have neither the knowledge, the vision nor the ideology to see the similarities between their problems and those of other like themselves elsewhere in the world. In other words, they are not class conscious, although they are sensitive indeed to status distinctions. 

              Published 50 years ago, the book, "The other America: Poverty in the United States," by Harrington was a surprise best seller that influenced the direction of social welfare policy, particularly by Lyndon Johnson, as well as the backlash that followed it. The book had a simple thesis: poverty was more extensive and tenacious than America had assumed. "That the poor are invisible is one of the most important things about them,"  he wrote. He had picked up the idea of a "culture of poverty" from the anthropologist Oscar Lewis, whose 1959 study of Mexican slum dwellers identified a subculture of lowered aspirations and short-term gratifications. Harrington`s culture of poverty thesis was at best an ambiguous impediment to understanding, in later books, he made no use of the term. But in its moral clarity, the book, "The Other America" was ultimately optimistic, it was less an indictment and more an appeal to Americans to live up to their better instincts. 

               For decades, social scientists and politicians have studied and debated what`s come to be known as the culture of poverty. The consensus: a class is set apart from the mainstream by geography, class and income. Its members adhere to norms that do not apply to the rest of society, and engage in self-destructive behavior that imposes significants costs on the nation at large. The culture of poverty has made for potent politics and spawned best-selling polemics. We do not hear as much about the culture of poverty these days. Perhaps it is because the crisis is making us all feel a little poorer. Or perhaps it is because a highly visible group is now exhibiting all the outward appearances of the underclass: the overclass. Wall Street types do not live in guettos, but they inhabit environments that are sealed off socially from the rest of the world. Because they rarely interact with people of middle-class, they have become woefully out of touch with the solid bourgeois values that made America great. In the underclass, unmarried young fathers do not take responsibility for their children. In the overclass, twice-married, middle-aged daddies do not own up to the consequences of their insane financial miscues. In his book, "The Age of Abundance," author Brink Lindsey boils down the difference between the desperately poor and the rich to an ability to focus on the long term. "Members of the underclass operate within such narrow time horizons and circle of trust that their lives are plagued by chronic chaos and dysfunction." By contrast, elites are long-term thinkers. Right. "Modern Wall Street is a system," says Charles Morris, author of "The Trillion Dollar Meltdown, " that rewards crazy risk taking in the short term without regard for the long term consequences." Critics point to a pervasive sense of victimhood in the underclass. But listen to CEO Alan Schwartz told after his firm succumbed to wounds that were almost entirely self-inflicted. Conservatives critics constantly carp that the culture of poverty has encouraged a sense of dependency on government. Yet, it vaulted into action to save the bankers from their own disastrous bets. in 1993, the late senator Daniel Patrick coined the term "defining deviancy down." The prevalence of bad behavior in the underclass, he argued, caused institutions to lower standards and expectations, which effectively socialized the costs of dysfunction. In recent weeks, the FED has responded to Wall Street`s crisis by lowering the standards of what it would accept as collateral for loans. It agreed to lend $30billion against assets of dubious provenance. And guess who bears the risk if that $30 billion can not be paid back? You and me. 

Democracy, Governance and Development

           This post is a summary of three articles. The first with the title above, it was written by U.N. Director Shabbir Cheema and it was published at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan        The second was published at  http://www.lincoln.edu/criminaljustice/hr/Civilandpolitical.htm. The third was published at http://www.partnersglobal.org/what/accountable-governance. 

      

          Today we are witnessing an upsurge in the popularity of democracy. Myriad political system and cultures adhere to the values of respect for human dignity, justice, equity, participation and accountability that underpin human rights, democracy and good governance. For democracy to be consolidated, five inter-related conditions must exist : free and lively civil society, "a autonomous and valued political society", the rule of law to guarantee freedoms and associations, functioning bureacracy which can be used by the democratic government, and "an institutionalized economic society". Democratization is understood to be the process whereby democratic institutions, practices and beliefs are built and/or strengthened in a society. This includes fostering the participation of citizens in the democratic process. The elements of democracy may move in different directions and follow diferent routes. Electoral democracies can become more democratic or less democratic. Similarly, democracies can improve or decline in their levels of accountability and responsiveness. There is, thus, no guarantee that democratic development moves in one direction, and there is much to suggest that all political systems, including democracies, can become rigid, corrupt and unresponsive. There are compelling reasons to care about whether the quality of governance is good across the globe. For the good of their own people and the sake of our common aims. Countries that are well governed are both less likely to be violent and are less likely to be poor. A country that protects human rights and promotes inclusion is less likely to have citizens who are alienated . Even if non-democratic governance were proven to promote economic progress, democratic governance has an intrinsic human development value in that it enables political and social participation. This is because human development is a measure of far more than just economic well-being. It is a process of enhancing human capabilities in a way that expands choice and participation. There is a wide body of literature on why and how democracies function effectively in some countries and not in others. Firstly, democratization is facilitated where there is greater inclusion in the process of decision-making. Second, ability of leaders to inspire others towards political change. Third, international approaches emphasize for democratic improvements and pressure from global actors including the civil society. Fourth, organizations, actors and institutions that are able to put pressure from below to affect reform. A vibrant and active civil society is a critical element in human development, since it is the part of society that connects individuals with the public realm and the state. Civil society can provide checks on government power and monitor abuses. Today there is a growing dichotomy between domestic and international politics in the sense that civil society is clarifying its role through global issues such as environment, human rights, crisis and so on. Like civil society organizations, political parties are an important vehicle responsible for aggregating the diverse demands of society. A vibrant multi-party system is essential to the health of democratic governance because provides a series of platforms for actions. Civil society and political parties are directly involved in the electoral process, functioning of the legislature, the promotion and protection of human rights, anti-corruption strategies, and governance in crisis and post-crisis situations.

              Civil and political rights are the rights that generally restrict the powers of the government in respect of actions affecting the individual and his or her autonomy, and confer an opportunity upon people to contribute to the determination of laws and participate in government. Some of the most important CIVIL RIGHTS are: RIGHT TO LIFE - this right can be violated in a variety of ways, including: deaths as a result of torture, neglect, the use of force, or life-threatening conditions of detention. RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF ASSEMBLY AND ASSOCIATION - this right can be violated in a variety of ways, including: preventing peaceful public demonstrations, restricting possibilities to join voluntary associations, denying persons the right to join organized unions. RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF THOUGHT, CONSCIENCE AND RELIGION - this right can be violated in a variety of ways, including: failing to provide adequate procedures to complain about, or obtain compensation for, not carrying out thorough enquiries into aleeged ill-treatment by security forces, not establishing complaints procedures regarding the interception of telephone calls. RIGHT TO PRIVACY - this right can be violated in a variety of ways, including: intervening in a person`s private right (which includes their right to form relationships), disrupting family life (which includes the right to marry and found a family), interfering with private correspondence (which includes emails and e-messages). POLITICAL RIGHTS are the guarantee the positive liberty to contribute to the process of governing the affairs of society in which one lives. Political rights presume that the government processes should be structured so as to provide opportunities for political participation of all citizens. Every citizen have the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly or by chosen representatives.

              Good governance is the foundation on which a peaceful, prosperous and dignified society is built. Governance is the processes of decision-making in a society and the processes by which those decisions are implemented. Partners creates the platforms for leaders and citizens to cooperate, ensuring that those who are affected by a decision have a voice in the process. Government is just one of the actors in governance. Others may include NGOs, research institutes, religious leaders, media, multi-national corporations, political parties, etc. Partners works with all sectors to strengthen their communication and management, enabling them to improve transparency. This build legitimacy and trust in the government and promotes citizen participation.

           

The Best and Worst Learning Techniques

            This post is a summary of three articles. The first with the incomplete title above, was published http://ideas.time.com/2013/01/09/highlighting-is-a-waste-of-time-the-best-and-worst-learning-techniques/.The second with the title of, "How to study in six simple steps." It was published at http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-study-in-six-simple-steps.html. The third with the title of, "12 steps for effective studying." It was published at http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/as/203.HTM

              In a world as fast-changing and full of information as our own, every one of us, from schoolchildren to college students to working adults, needs to know how to learn well. Yet evidence suggests that most of us do not use the learning techniques that science has proved most effective. Worse, research finds that learning strategies we commonly employ, like rereading and highlighting, are among the least effective. In a report released on January by the Association for Psychological Science, the authors, led by Kent State University, professor John Dunlosky, closely examine 10 learning tactics and rate each from high to low utility on the basis of the evidence they have amassed. Here is a quick guide to their conclusions: Highlighting and underlining led the list of ineffective learning strategies. Although they are common practices, studies show they offer no benefits beyond simply reading the text. Nearly as bad is the practice of rereading, a common exercise that is much less effective than some of the better techniques you can use. Lastly, summarizing, or writing down the main points contained in a text, can be helpful for those who are skilled at it, but again, there are better ways to spend your study time. The learning strategies with the most evidence to support them are not well known outside the psychological lab. Take distributed practice, for example. This tactic involves spreading your study sessions, rather than engaging in one marathon. Cramming information at the last minute may allow you to get through that test or meeting, but the material will quickly disappear from memory. It is more effective to dip into the material at intervals over time. The second learning strategy that is highly recommended by the authors of the report is practice tests. Research shows that the mere act of calling information to mind strengthens that knowledge and aids in future retrieval. There is one familiar approach that captures the benefits of tests: using flash cards. And now flash cards can be presented in digital forms, via apps like, Quizlet, StudyBlue, FlashCardMachine, etc. Both distributed practice, and practice tests were rated as having "high utility" by the authors. The remainder of the techniques evaluated by Dunlosky fell into the middle ground, not useless, but not especially effective either. These include mental imagery, elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, mixing up different types of problems and lastly the keyword mnemonic. Much better, say the authors, is to spread out your learning and get busy with practice tests and flash cards.

             Make room mentally and physically, for studying. Usually you are studying for something specific, such as an exam. Think of how you make yourself comfortable when you do something you really enjoy, like watching a favorite movie. If you are in a good space physically, you can improve your mental space. Make the place your own and somewhere you enjoy. Adjust your pace accordingly, but if you study at a slow pace, you will need to set aside more time for the tasks. Remember that breaks are just important as active study (10 minutes for 30 minutes of study). In any sequence, people remember the first and the last things best. Whatever you try to remember, you will find yourself recalling the beginning and the end, with less clear memories of the middle. You can not change this, it is how our brains work, use this fact to your advantage by organizing your study. It is always good to have a plan. When study, break your biggest goal into smaller tasks. It is best if each of these tasks consists of a single topic. Often, you will discover one or two key elements that stand out and get fixed in your mind. Mind map is a rough diagram that you can make to visually outline information. You can create a mind map by starting with the primary phrase of a topic in the center, with related, lesser categories branching out from it. Your categories can consist of anything you think is important, they can be ideas, terms or tasks to complete, whatever you need to organize the information.

            Plan a definite time for studying every day. Studying every day, even for a short period of time, keeps you from falling behind. Know the purpose of and understand each assignment before leaving class. If you understand what to do and how to do it, your study time will be shortened. Predicting the amount of time you need. By keeping track of the actual time you spend on your assignments, you are more likely to concentrate and less likely to become bored. The habit of frequent review also results in less time needed for studying prior to a major exam. Study for 30 to 40 minutes and then take a break. Taking breaks refreshs your mind so you can concentrate better, finish faster, and retain more. Distribute your review in half-hour segments over a period of days. If you do not adopt a structured study schedule, you will not master required course material and you will set yourself up to fail. Learning is accumulative. New ideas must be incorporated with previous material from lectures, readings, and any other assignments such as labs. You have to continuously make the connection in your mind from new material to previously learned material. Putting it all together is easier if you schedule time daily to read, to think, to write, to reflect, and to review. Improved learning is the best approach to studying and effectively using your time. Not having enough time to study means you lack organization, so by managing your time, you have control over your life and a chance to do more of what you want to do.

Establishing Effective Accountability Mechanisms for Human Rights Violations

              This post is a summary of two articles. The first with the title above was published at http://unchronicle.un.org/issues/2012/  on December 2012 in the magazine with the title of, " Delivering Justice" and was written by Navanethem Pillay. The second was published on February 1997,was written by Juan Mendez http://userpages.umbc.edu/~simpson/Human%20Rights/articles/Mendez,%20Accountability

          Understanding the patterns of past human rights violations and ending impunity for the worst violations are indispensable for successful transformative processes. At the core of any effort to establish accountability are three interlinked rights: the right to truth, the right to justice, and the right to effective reparation. In order to implement these rights, a comprehensive strategy is required that involves governments and civil society. Violations of human rights undermine the fabric of entire societies.They can destabilize whole regions. In the aftermath of such terrible events, it is essencial to establish the truth. Knowing the truth allows victims to gain a sense of closure and restore a measure of dignity. Justice is the indispensable companion of truth. Accountability for crimes and violations, including individual accountability under criminal law, is key to reinstate public trust in justice. At the same time, we need to pay more attention to the victims. Everyone is aware of the tremendous physical, psychological and material price victims pay. However, efforts to end impunity have, unfortunately, not been accompanied by equally strong efforts to address the plight of victims. There is a clear need to rectify this imbalance so that victims can obtain effective reparation for the harm they suffered. Today, no state can feign ignorance about the extent and causes of violations committed under it watch. This applies even if its own institutions do not pick up such violations, as they should. There is hardly a gross violations that is not documented by the United Nations and our 58 human rights field presence across the world. Experience shows that inadequate capacity within domestic institutions is often a key factor that perpetuates impunity for the perpetrators of crimes and violations. Our study concluded that true accountability can be achieve only if national inquiry mechanisms are independent, impartial and transparent. Central to any effective investigation and prosecution is a successful witness protection programme that, if necessary, may also include international assistance to get witness out of harm`s way. Capacity and knowledge on their own will not suffice where a government lacks the political commitment to hold perpetrators of human rights violations accountable. The type of volatile political situations that ensure after human rights violations are committed often mean that national advocates for accountability run serious political, if not physical risks. It is therefore, important that the international community support domestic accountability efforts. However, where national authorities fail to fulfil their responsability to punish those responsible for human rights violations, international and hybrid tribunals, have played an important role in closing the accountability gap. Accountability for human rights violations constitutes a central plank of the contemporary human rights agenda. Today, the question is no longer whether to ensure accountability but when and how this is best achieved. 

              In only a few years the international community has made considerable progress toward the recognition that a legacy of grave and systematic violations generates obligations that the state owes to the victims and to society. The accountability problem has legal, ethical and political dimensions, and it is imperative to recognize and tackle all the three. The multiplicity of dimensions has changed the way human rights organizations conceive their work and how they work to promote and defend fundamental freedoms. The measuring stick of true commitment to democracy is the degree to which governments are willing to organize its apparatus and structures through which public power is exercised, so that they are capable of ensuring the full enjoyment of human rights. Proponents of accountability have gained a lot of ground in the last twelve years, The theme is firmly established in the agenda of all major challenges of our time. As in the past, it is not enough to insist on moral principles. The international community must acknowledge the political constraints while insisting that everyone look at them objectively. The most important point is not so much to impose a set of obligations upon leaders, but to find the means by which the international community supports the efforts made by some of those leaders and by organizations of civil society to achieve accountability. It is also time to review the theoretical framework under which the international community has discussed these issues.