The History of Human Rights

            This post is a summary of four articles. The first was published at http://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/human_rights_basics. The second with the incomplete title above was published at  http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/br_clinton.html. The third was published at  http://www.amazon.com/The-History-Human-Rights-Globalization/dp/0520256417. The  Fourth was published at  http://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/volumes/2006/leonard-2006.pdf

               Human rights are standards that allow all people to live with dignity, freedom, equality, justice and peace. Every person has these rights simply because they are human beings. They are guarantee to everyone without distinction of any kind. Human rights are essential to the full development of individuals and communities. Human rights are part of international law, contained in treaties and declarations that spell out specific rights that countries are required to uphold. When a government ratifies a human rights treaty, it assumes a legal obligation to respect, protect and fulfill the rights contained in the treaty. Governments are obligated to make sure that human rights are protected by both preventing human rights violations against people within their territories and providing effective remedies for those whose rights are violated.

             "We are all historians of human rights," claimed Linda Kerber, former president of the American Historical Association. Assessing the extent of and constraints upon human freedom and possibilities has certainly been an implicit theme of the modern historical profession as defined in the West, whether liberal, Marxist, post-structuralist, or other. Micheline has produced a survey that explicitly examines human rights as a dynamic of human history whose origins are discernible in the earliest periods of human history but whose resonance has been felt most powerfully in recent centuries. While Micheline admirably helps to set present-day challenges to and prospects for human rights in a historical perspective, world historians will be disappointed in making that perspective more global in context. Micheline's first major feat is in organizing such a sprawling topic coherently and accessibly. She finds a ready-made organizing principle in the one articulated by René Cassin, who helped draft the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 with an amphasis on four fundamental themes: dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood. Moreover, Micheline argues, these themes not only frame specific sections of the Declaration itself, they can also be understood historically as "generations" of rights that respond to emerging conditions in various periods. The first chapter traces how diverse religious and ethical traditions from the pre-modern era contributed to identifying a set of categories that served as a platform for modern considerations of human rights. Micheline also support the first of six assertions meant to dispel specific misconceptions about human rights, whose origins, she contends, lay deeply rooted in the world's religious traditions. The second chapter addresses how such attributes of the modern world as science, mercantilism, expanding global encounters, and a powerful, restless middle class facilitated the transition to a secular human rights perspective. The Enlightenment in particular promoted this first modern generation of civil and political liberties that included freedom of religion and opinion, the right to life, and the right to private property. The 19th century age of ideology and industrialization frames the third chapter, where Micheline remind us of the critical role that socialism in its myriad forms played as a tradition that pushed claims for rights beyond previous borders. Socialists sought not only to expand civil and political rights to include freedom of association (e.g., in unions)  and universal suffrage. They also claimed social rights reflected in 20th century social welfare policies of many states and enshrined in documents that comprise the present-day human rights system. The human rights abuses associated with communist regimes during the 20th century have left the socialist tradition discredited, so this chapter makes a significant contribution to reclaiming socialism's important place in the historical development of human rights. It also demonstrates how human rights claims can come into conflict when ideological premises upon which they are based are also at odds. Nationalism, another ideology that grew powerful in the 19th century, posed a particular dilemma in the history of human rights that Micheline addresses in a fourth assertion: "that demands for cultural rights must always be informed by and checked against a universalist perspective of human rights." Nationalists incorporated the rhetoric of rights in their cultural and political claims, creating a third stream alongside the liberal and socialist traditions. Yet nationalism's very nature also intensified the conflict between relativists and universalists. This conflict played a central role in the vast destruction wrought by the 20th century's two world wars as well as its many colonial wars. The fourth chapter departs somewhat from the Western-centered perspective that informed the two previous chapters, and the fifth chapter examines the plight of human rights in the contect of globalization. The wider global scope that the book takes at this point, however, follows the traditional trajectory of Western civilization texts, where Asia, Africa, and Latin America make their appearance as the Western imperial grasp tightens in the 19th century. Finally, Micheline concludes the book with an excellent chapter that provides a sophisticated assessment of the prospects and problems that human rights confront in today's fluid world. An engaged intellectual, Micheline issues a call to action that emphasizes the need to engage in a sustainable global civil society that will preserve and build upon the human rights traditions achieved over the past centuries. 

                 Micheline Ishay recounts the dramatic struggle for human rights across the ages in a book that brilliantly synthesizes historical and intellectual developments from the Mesopotamian Codes of Hammurabi to today's era of globalization. As she chronicles the clash of movements and ideas that have played a part in this struggle, Micheline illustrates how the history of human rights has evolved from one era to the next through texts and cultural traditions. Writing with verve and extraordinary range, she develops a framework for understanding contemporary issues from the debate over globalization to the intervention in Kosovo to the climate for human rights after September 11, 2001. The only comprehensive history of human rights available, the book will be essential reading for anyone concerned with humankind's quest for justice and dignity. Micheline structures her chapter around six core questions that have shaped human rights debate and schorlarship: What are the origins of human rights? Why did the European vision of human rights triumph over those of other civilizations? Has socialism made a last contribution to the legacy of human rights? Are human rights universal or cultural bound? Is globalization eroding or advancing human rights? As she explores these questions, Micheline also incorporates notable documents, writings, speeches, and political statements, from activists, writers, and thinkers throughout history.

                  As stated earlier, Micheline purports that human rights are inalienable and universal. Yet, she acknowledges and accepts humanity's cultural uniqueness and the need for social tolerance. However, if the global community is to overcome what Micheline views as the "impending neo-medievalism", then it is the agents within civil society that must take the lead. The coming neo-medievalism, which is marked by a loss of rights. In order to counter this descent, Micheline proposes "a more vibrant global civil society that could thwart undemocratic policies associated with the unfettered march of neo-liberal globalization, protect the realm of privacy against state intrusion, and stimulate critical thinking." In short,Micheline is proposing a coalescence of actors who adhere to the human rights principles found in international legal statutes, because these are the rights of all individuals within a cosmopolitan global community. These rights are divergent in their ideological foundations, but there exists solidarity within a strong civil society that might grant these rights a universal status. The authors of "Constructing Human Rights" reach a similar conclusion. Their notion of universals is also dependent on social acceptance and solidarity achieved through dialogue and interaction. These two texts do not sound the end to the quest for universal human rights. The quest for a definitive understanding of human rights will continue within the literature, the classroom, and in diplomatic conferences, and courtrooms around the world. In fact, one of the many accomplishements of these two books is that they are re-energized a somewhat static debate and placed it into a vital dialogue. However, whether or not you agree with their conclusions, one thing is clear: these two texts are both very much worth reading. 

              

Day of Teachers 2015

             Last Thursday, October 15th, all Brazil celebrated the Teacher's day. This post is a tribute to this very important professional. This post is a summary of three articles. The first published http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/2015teacherdayweek.prc.rel.pdf. The second was published at http://teach.com/what/teachers-change-lives/teachers-are-role-models. The third was published at http://pubs.sciepub.com/education/2/12A/6/

            Every child deserves a chance to achieve their dreams. A world-class education can unlock a young person's potential and empower them with the knowledge and skills to reach their highest aspirations. As a nation, we must provide every girl and boy with such an opportunity, and this can not happen without great teachers. On Teachers's Day, we honor outstanding teachers and the vital role they play in the lives of our sons and daughters and the success of our country. In classrooms, talented and hardworking teachers are nurturing a new generation of thinkers, doers, and dreamers. They teach the subjects ans skills that will fuel the next century of growth and innovation, as well as the virtues and values, like character, compassion, creativity and resilience, that will prepare their students to take on the challenges of the future. Our best teachers are role models who show our kids how to work hard and pursue a brighter tomorrow. They encourage and help the students realize the best versions of themselves. Teaching is an all-encompassing commitment, and teachers make enormous sacrifices to support their students. Great teachers make a lasting impact on their students' lives. When a young person learns from a exceptional teacher, they are more likely to graduate, attend college, and succeed later in life. They deserve our gratitude and thanks. This week, as we remember the teachers who touched our lives and shaped our futures, let us recommit to supporting those who serve in our country's classrooms. 

            A role model is a person who inspire ans encourages us to strive for greatness, live to our fullest potential and see the best in ourselves. A role model is someone we admire. We learn through them, through their ability to make us realize our own personal growth. A role model can be anybody: a parent, a sibling, a friend but some of our most influential and life-changing role models are teachers. Teachers are poised to become one of the most influential people in the student life. After their parents, children will first learn from their elementary school teacher. Then, as a middle school teacher, you will guide students through yet another important transition: adolescence. As children become young adults, , you will answer their questions, listen to their problems and teach them about this new phase of their lives. Much of what students learn from their greatest teachers is not detailed on a syllabus. Teachers who help us grow people are responsible for imparting some of life's most important lessons. During their initial school years, students encounter, perhaps for the first time, other children of the same age and begin to form some of their first relationships. As a teacher, you will show your students how to become independent, you will carefully guide them and intervene when necessary. School is as much a place of social learning as academic learning, and this is true, not only in our early years of education, but all the way through college. Teachers are founts of experience. They have already been where their students are going, undergone what they will go through and are in a position to pass along lessons, not only regarding subject matter, but lessons on life.

              This article introduces the importance of democratic values and place the role of teachers in the present democratic world. Schools are places where democratic ideals such as equality, freedom and justice are instilled in individuals. Teachers are instruments of change. For democracy to continue to thrive, students must be taught to value it as a way of live. The necessary skills for building democracy do not develop automatically in students. Teaching democracy means preparing students to become citizens who will preserve and shape democracy in the future. Therefore democracy should be a key aspect in every form of education. Students should learn about taking responsibility for their action. These educational outcomes are only possible through action. While key concepts of democracy should be understood by students, living and acting in a democratic environment is the only and the best exercise. Schools, institutions, and organizations and even families that respect democratic principles and have real democratic structures function as the best models to help students learn what democracy is about. Teachers should democratize their pedagogy so that students and newest teachers understand and learn skills of democratic practice. The appropriate balance between critical components skills, knowledge and dispositions, on one hand, and an open, dynamic and critically engaged curriculum, on the other hand has not yet been attained. Democratic values should be reflected in all walks of life and in all aspects of society. A growing body of research shows that teacher's sense of eficacy is connected to their commitment to teaching, students's academic achievement and motivation. Similarly, the literature shows that teacher effectiveness is supported by democratic values and beliefs of teachers. Democracy is regarded as a 'way of life' interrelated with the perceptions and assumptions, common experiences of individuals. So, it can be state that democracy is not a static concept but a dynamic, active and changing process. Mere knowledge of democratic processes is not deemed suficient for ensuring that the student will grow to become an active participant in the democratic processes. Teacher has to play an important role in ensuring that the students understand not merely the form but ther spirit of democracy. Teachers who want to practice democracy should demonstrate their beliefs by giving importance to democratic values in high esteem and adopt appropriate methods in accordance with those values. If democracy is to become a way of life, we certainly need teachers with a strong commitment to democratic education.

The Role of Fiscal Transparency in Latin America

               This post is a summary of a report published in September 2007, with the complete title of, "The role of fiscal transparency in sustaining growth and stability in Latin America." Published at  https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2007/wp07220.pdf

              Latin America has experienced a resurgence in growth in recent years. However, maintaining a strong and stable macroeconomic performance in Latin America will depend on further cuts in public debt, identification and reduction of fiscal vulnerabilities and improvements in the quality of public spending. Good fiscal management and improvements in fiscal transparency enhance the prospect for sound fiscal performance and a more favorable investment environment. This would be an important step toward stable and higher growth in the region. Lack of transparency, including inadequate data, hidden liabilities, and a lack of clarity about government policies, contributed to loss of confidence and fed global instability in the late 1990s. Particularly in Latin America, weaknesses were related to poor monitoring of off-budget fiscal activities that eventually had large fiscal consequences. Not only were these consequences not anticipated, but the lack of transparency may have contributed to the growth of these activites. Improvements in the quality and timeliness of fiscal data should improve the analysis of fiscal data and the quality of fiscal decisions. Fiscal transparency is more than improved monitoring of fiscal risks. Making information available to the public provide for greater accountability of government and indirectly should strengthen governance and reduce corruption. Better information can also enhance public understanding and lead to stronger support for important fiscal reforms needed to reduce public debt. Greater fiscal transparency, by simplifying tax and business regulations and curbing discretion, can positively impact the business environment and thus attract investment. Improvements in the fiscal stance and a significant decline in debt-to-GDP ratios have been recognized as important factors contributing to the resurgence of economic growth in Latin America. However, public debt remains high, if Latin America is to avoid a repetition of previous economic crises, more fundamental improvements in fiscal management are needed. The susceptibility to debt crises in Latin America points to the need for more explicit analysis of fiscal sustainability, as well as continued succesful fiscal consolidation. Fiscal crises in Latin America in the past were often rooted in the emergence of "fiscal skeletons" resulting from poor monitoring of contingent liabilities and, in particular, a lack of recognition of the fiscal impact of off-budget fiscal activities related to public financial institutions. Some of the most costly hidden liabilities in Latin America were related to implicit guarantees in the banking and corporate sector. Quasi-fiscal activities of development banks and public enterprises were often an important source of losses in these sectors. In Latin America, much of the information that citizens should have in the course of the budget year to hold governments accountable for their policies is not publicly available. Information should be available on policy intentions, revenue, debt, spending and results. Administrators appears to have more discretions, which may be an important factor contributing to corruption and unequal application of rules and regulations. Good practices in expenditure monitoring and audit are especially important to ensure effective government expenditure and prevent misuse of public funds. Certain institutional weaknesses may have contributed to lax fiscal policy and growing debt in Latin america. According to the literature on budget institutions, centalization of budget powers is an important ingredient for achieving sound fiscal policies. The ability to fully evaluate the impact of fiscal policy on the economy requires, first, identifying all government activities so that government is clearly defined, second, routinely consolidating data to produce regular reports on the consolidated operations of general government, and third, ensuring that the accounting system produces timely, accurate data. Minimizing corruption or the misuse use of public resources requires developing strong internal control and internal and external audit functions. Latin America lack of information on proposed and final budget obscured responsibility for fiscal policy making. A number of countries in Latin America have adopted Fiscal Responsibility Laws to try to overcome institutional weaknesses and achieve sounder fiscal outcomes. In addition, Paraguay, for example, adopted a "golden rule" (current expenditures can not be financed by credit). A number of countries have reacted to the possible threat of over-indebted subnational governments by passing fiscal responsibility laws that limit the ability of governments to borrow. In Brazil, for example, fiscal responsibility law prohibited credit ot rescheduling operations between different levels of governments to avoid the risk of intragovernmental bailouts. These countries could be setting the standards for fiscal data quality for emerging countries in others regions, however, theu fall short of this potential. Internal reports produced for fiscal management should be made available to the public in the government website. This would be a simple and cost effective way to inform and enhance the ability of civil society yo monitor and evaluate fiscal policies. Efforts also should be made to expand the content of published fiscal reports, particularly analyses of fiscal risks and sustainability. Greater transparency in the budget formulation process may help to harden the budget constraint and make both executive and legislature more accountable to the public. This would require the timely publication of the draft executive budget sent to the legislature, open legislative debate, and publication of the final approved budget. Countries in Latin America could strengthen governance by extending coverage of institutions subject to regular audits, and by publishing both internal and external audit reports to promote accountability to the public. Many countries could also develop more effective follow-up mechanisms to ensure the recommendations are implemented. Countries that have pursued decentralization need to give relatively high priority to promoting fiscal transparency in intergornmental relations. Without strong local oversight to hold officials accountable, such a set up can be an open invitation to inefficiency and/or corruption. Promoting fiscal transparency at the local level through higher quality fiscal reporting, off-budget transactions. Well designed decentralization policies include a clear assignment of responsibilities, and transfers based on staple and transparent criteria. Predictable sources of financing will enable governments to be more effective in carrying out their assigned responsibilities. For example, transfers can be made contingent on meeting reporting requirements or earmarked for debt reduction ot debt servicing when legal debt limits have been exceeded.

International Day of Democracy - Part II

                    This post is a summary of three articles.  The first was published in September 2015 by International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance    ( International IDEA) at http://www.idea.int/about/anniversary/upload/Declaration-of-the-International-IDEA-Member-States-on-the-occasion-of-the-International-Day-of-Democracy-2015.pdf. The second was published in September 2015 at http://greekfestival.gr/en/content/page/international-new-york-times-athens-democracy-forum. The third was published at http://yuvamauritius.com/2015/09/15/international-day-of-democracy/

                  Our mutual ambitions and core values are espoused in the declaration issued by the 14 Founding Members States of International IDEA, we identify with the concept of democracy as enshrined in the Resolution which created the International Day of Democracy and was adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in November 2007. We, the member States, reaffirm our strong and continued engagement and support for international IDEA and its non-prescriptive approach and our commitment to its mandate and the principles expressed in the Statute of International IDEA, which state that democratic participation forms an integral part of human rights and that democracy remains essential for guaranteeing human rights, sustainable democracy, democratic governance, aceess to information, accountability and transparency and remains central elements of national, regional and international development commitments and that strengthening democratic institutions and democratic norms remains a vital goal in itself and a key component in conflict-prevention and peace-building efforts. We take note that in March 2015 the U.N. Human Rights Council established a Forum on human rights, democracy and the rule of law to provide a platform for promoting dialogue and cooperation on issues pertaining to the relationship between these areas, that shall identify and analyse best practices, challenges and opportunities for States in their efforts to secure respect for human rights, democracy and the rule of law. In the past twenty years, many countries have transitioned from authoritarian to democratic rule. Democracy comes in multiple forms and there is no single or universally applicable model of democracy. We consider, however, that at its core, democracy is a system in which the government is controlled by the people. Intrinsic links between sustainable democracy, human rights, democratic institutions and inclusive social and economic development, have not prevented continued challenges posed to democracy, such as insecurity, extremism and shrinking space for civil society, a persisting number of countries emerging from violent conflict or marked by tensions among ethnic, religious or political groups, a diminishing public trust in formal political institutions and disengagement from traditional forms of democratic actors such as political parties. 

                  As the world lurches from crisis to crisis, democracy is under extreme pressure. From the rise of islamist extremism and regimes in states that reject liberal democracy, to the rapid expansion of new technologies, democratic foundations are being threatened in a world where profound changes happen almost overnight. In this era of global uncertainty, these issues and more will frame the debate at the third Athens Democracy Forum.      http://athensdemocracyforum.com/      Held on International Democracy Day, the forum will bring together diplomats, scholars, corporate executives, politicians and journalists from around the world to discuss at the foot of the Acropolis the state of liberal democracies and the major challenges they face in the world today. In addition to the main conference, a rich program of affiliated events, including a Google Hangout featuring political activists under house arrest. "The painstaking work of building democracy is never finished. Gatherings like the Athens democracy Forum provide the much-needed oxygen of dialogue." Said the U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.

                   Democracy is a universally recognized ideal and is one of the core values and principles of the United Nations. Democracy provides an environment for the protection and effective realization of human rights. These values are emboldied in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( UDHR ) http://www.humanrights.com/what-are-human-rights/universal-declaration-of-human-rights.html  and further developed in the International Covenant on Civil and Political rights, which enshrines a host of political rights and civil liberties underpinning meaningful democracies. United Nations activities in support of democracy and governance are carried out through the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ), the United Nations Democracy Fund ( UNDEF ), among others. Such activities are inseparable from the U.N.'s work in promoting human rights, development, and peace and security, and include:  1) Assisting parliaments to enhance the checks and balances that allow democracy to thrive.  2) Helping to strengthen the impartiality and effectiveness of national human rights institutions and justice.  3) Helping to develop legislation and media capacities to ensure freedom of expression and access to information.  4) Assisting to develop policies and legislation to guarantee the right to freedom of association and of peaceful assembly.  5) Providing electoral assistance and long-term support for electoral management bodies.  6) Promoting women's participation in political and public life. Over the past 20 years the U.N. has provided various forms of electoral assistance to more than 100 countries, including advisory services, logistics, training, civic education, computer applications and short-term observation. Democracy conferences and summits since the 1990s and in the internationally agreed development goals they produced. World leaders pledged in the Millennium Declaration to spare no effort to promote democracy as well as respect to human rights and fundamental freedoms.